Mercury bioaccumulation and Hepatozoon spp. infections in two syntopic watersnakes in South Carolina.

Mercury (Hg) is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant known to bioaccumulate in biota and biomagnify in food webs. Parasites occur in nearly every ecosystem and often interact in complex ways with other stressors that their hosts experience. Hepatozoon spp. are intraerythrocytic parasites common in snakes. The Florida green watersnake (Nerodia floridana) and the banded watersnake (Nerodia fasciata) occur syntopically in certain aquatic habitats in the Southeastern United States. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships among total mercury (THg) concentrations, body size, species, habitat type and prevalence and parasitemia of Hepatozoon spp. infections in snakes. In the present study, we sampled N. floridana and N. fasciata from former nuclear cooling reservoirs and isolated wetlands of the Savannah River Site in South Carolina. We used snake tail clips to quantify THg and collected blood samples for hemoparasite counts. Our results indicate a significant, positive relationship between THg and snake body size in N. floridana and N. fasciata in both habitats. Average THg was significantly higher for N. fasciata compared to N. floridana in bays (0.22 ± 0.02 and 0.08 ± 0.006 mg/kg, respectively; p < 0.01), but not in reservoirs (0.17 ± 0.02 and 0.17 ± 0.03 mg/kg, respectively; p = 0.29). Sex did not appear to be related to THg concentration or Hepatozoon spp. infections in either species. We found no association between Hg and Hepatozoon spp. prevalence or parasitemia; however, our results suggest that species and habitat type play a role in susceptibility to Hepatozoon spp. infection.

Abdominal Calcifications in a Patient From the Congo Basin with History of Snake Meat Consumption: Radiographic Evidence of Prior Armillifer Infection.

We report a case of a 60-year-old asymptomatic male with history of consumption of uncooked snake meat while living in the Congo basin and prior imaging showing multiple abdominal calcifications. Patient had multiple subepithelial colonic lesions identified during screening colonoscopy and microscopic examination of the lesions demonstrated a calcified nodule in the submucosa with overlying normal mucosa. However, no parasite was identified within the calcified nodule. Given the history of consumption of uncooked snake meat and the typical radiographic feature of multiple abdominal calcifications, it is very likely that the patient's radiographic abnormalities are due to prior Armillifer armillatus infection, a parasitic infection acquired from consumption of uncooked snake meat. Patient was asymptomatic at the time of evaluation and was not given anti-parasitic treatment.

Molecular characterization of haemosporidian and haemogregarine diversity in southwestern Iberian amphibians and reptiles.

The knowledge of the diversity and geographic distribution of parasite species is the first step towards understanding processes of global epidemiology and species conservation. Despite recent increases in research on haemosporidian and haemogregarine parasites of reptiles and amphibians, we still know little about their diversity and parasite-host interactions, especially in the Iberian Peninsula, where a few studies have been conducted. In this study, the haemosporidian and haemogregarine diversity and phylogenetic relationships of the parasites in southwestern Iberian amphibians and reptiles were assessed using PCR approaches on blood samples of 145 individuals from five amphibian and 13 reptile species. The amphibians did not present any of both groups of parasites studied. Regarding reptiles, five Hepatozoon, one Haemogregarina, and one Haemocystidum haplotypes were found infecting four different species, revealing new host records for these parasites. Among them, we found one new Haemocystidium haplotype and three new and a previously reported Hepatozoon haplotype from a north African snake. The latter finding suggests that some Hepatozoon parasites may not be host-specific and have large geographic ranges even crossing geographical barriers. These results increased the knowledge about the geographic distribution and the number of known host species of some reptile apicomplexan parasites, highlighting the great unexplored diversity of them in this region.

Checklist of parasites associated with 'reptiles' in Northeast Brazil.

Reptiles, as well as other vertebrate groups, harbour a significant diversity of parasitic organisms, from nematodes and other helminths to viruses and bacteria. The Northeast is one of the richest regions in Brazil in terms of the reptile diversity, number of species and endemism. Parasites are diverse organisms and knowledge about the parasitic fauna of vertebrates is an important factor in understanding the ecological relationships between hosts and the environment. Studies on the parasitic fauna of reptiles in South America have increased in the past few years. The present review is a compilation of 122 studies published from 1924 to 2021. We present information on 101 species of reptiles from five groups (amphisbaenians, crocodile, testudines, snakes and lizards) and 183 parasitic taxa belonging to four phyla: Nematoda; Arthropoda; Platyhelminthes; and Acanthocephala. Nematodes were the most frequently recorded species. Lizards and snakes had more records of parasitism and higher levels of parasite richness and diversity. Ceará was the state with most studies and recorded cases of parasite-host association. The Caatinga and Atlantic Forest were the most investigated environments. The objective of this review was to contribute knowledge on the parasitic biodiversity in reptiles from Northeast Brazil, which may help identify gaps in our knowledge and guide future studies.

Morphological detection and molecular characterization of Hepatozoon spp. from venomous terrestrial snakes in Iran.

Hepatozoon spp. are blood protozoans that can infect snakes. Infections with these parasites are found in more than 200 snake species and are considered to be the most frequent hemogregarines in snakes. In this study, a total of 73 dead snakes in captivity conditions, belonging to six different species, which were collected between June 2018 to October 2020 from different parts of Iran, were examined for the presence of blood parasites with microscopy and molecular methods. DNA was extracted from the removed heart, and PCR was done with two pairs of primers targeting the 18S rRNA gene. By microscopy, Hepatozoon spp. were detected in the heart blood of 29 out of the 73 (39.72%) snakes. From these 29 positive samples, eight were found to be positive using the PCR method. This study aimed to report for the first time the molecular characteristics of Hepatozoon spp. infecting venomous terrestrial snakes in Iran.

Diversity of haemogregarine parasites infecting Brazilian snakes from the Midwest and Southeast regions with a description of two new species of Hepatozoon (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina: Hepatozoidae).

Although Brazil is a hotspot for snake species, there is a lack of information on the biodiversity of haemoparasites infecting these hosts. Thus, the present study aimed to bring new insights on the diversity of species of Hepatozoon (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina: Hepatozoidae) infecting Brazilian snakes from the Midwest and Southeast regions. The snakes were captured from 2018 to 2020 from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás, and São Paulo. Three to five blood smears were made and the remaining blood sample was stored for further molecular analysis. Moreover, histopathological slides of the organs were stained with haematoxylin-eosin. Regarding molecular diagnosis, PCR was performed targeting different regions of the 18S rRNA gene of apicomplexan parasites. From the 13 free-living snakes screened, ten (76.92%) were found infected with Hepatozoon spp. Based on morphological and morphometric tools, five different morphotypes of species of Hepatozoon gamonts were detected. Molecular data and phylogenetic analysis support the morphological data, identifying five species of Hepatozoon from snakes, of which three species belong to previously described species, Hepatozoon cevapii, Hepatozoon cuestensis, and Hepatozoon quagliattus, with a genetic similarity of 100% (based on the 18S rRNA genetic marker). The present study identifies and describes two new species of Hepatozoon, Hepatozoon annulatum sp. nov. infecting the snake Leptodeira annulata and Hepatozoon trigeminum sp. nov. infecting the snake Oxyrhopus trigeminus. Thus, based on morphological and molecular data the present study provides new insights on haemogregarine diversity infecting Brazilian snakes from the Midwest and Southeast regions.

A new tapeworm from Compsophis infralineatus (Pseudoxyrhophiidae), an endemic snake of Madagascar: Scratching the surface of undiscovered reptilian parasite diversity.

A new species of proteocephalid cestodes, provisionally assigned to the polyphyletic genus Ophiotaenia La Rue, 1911 (Cestoda: Proteocephalidae), is described from Compsophis infralineatus (Günther) (Serpentes: Pseudoxyrhophiidae) endemic to Madagascar. Ophiotaenia oreae n. sp. differs from all African and Asian species of Ophiotaenia by possessing more uterine diverticula (68-82 on one side). It is also characterised by the absence of an apical organ, the relative sizes of the cirrus-sac and ovary, the almost equatorial position of the gonopore, the diameter of the embryophore, and other biometric characteristics. Phylogenetic relationships of the new species indicate its relatedness to Indomalayan and Australasian proteocephalids from reptiles. Ophiotaenia oreae n. sp. formed a well-supported clade composed of species of Australophiotaenia de Chambrier, Beveridge and Scholz, 2018 from Australian snakes, Macrobothriotaenia ficta (Meggitt, 1931) from Xenopeltis unicolor Reinwardt in Boie from Vietnam, Ophiotaenia sp. from Trimeresurus flavomaculatus (Gray) from the Philippines, and Ophiotaenia bungari de Chambrier, Binh and Scholz, 2012 from Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider) from Vietnam. The only proteocephalid from Madagascan snakes sequenced so far, Ophiotaenia lapata Rambeloson, Ranaivoson and de Chambrier, 2012 from Madagascarophis colubrinus (Schlegel), does not form a monophyletic group with the new species. The actual species diversity of reptilian cestodes in Madagascar is undoubtedly underestimated. Because of the assumed strict (oioxenous) host specificity of reptilian proteocephalids and rich fauna of snakes occurring in Madagascar, it is plausible to expect the existence of dozens new species of proteocephalids on this island.

First record of the stump-tailed lizard tick, Amblyomma albolimbatum (Ixodida, Ixodidae) parasitising a human.

Ticks are haematophagous arthropods that parasitise a wide range of vertebrate hosts. In Australia, there are currently 74 tick species described; 22 tick species have been reported parasitising humans. The stump-tailed lizard tick, Amblyomma albolimbatum, feeds on reptiles, most commonly lizards and snakes; however, we report the first case of A. albolimbatum parasitising a human. The nymphal tick was removed while conducting fieldwork on western tiger snakes (Notechis scutatus occidentalis) in an urban city environment near Perth, Western Australia. The tick was identified using morphological descriptions, which was further supported by the abundance of all parasitic stages of A. albolimbatum on the tiger snakes sampled. The number of tick species recorded from humans in Australia is now revised to 23 species. With the increasing incidence of tick-borne illnesses in Australia, this study highlights the need to report cases of new or atypical hosts, particularly humans, and especially when the ticks have been associated with zoonotic pathogens.

A new species of Serpentirhabdias Tkach, Kuzmin et Snyder, 2014 (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) parasitic in the herald snake, Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia (Laurenti) (Reptilia: Serpentes: Colubridae) in South Africa.

Serpentirhabdias mamlambo n. sp. is described from the lung of the herald snake, Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia (Laurenti) in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. The new species is characterised by the small lips, the absence of the buccal capsule, the large excretory glands (1.5-2.3 times longer than the oesophagus), and the numerous eggs in uteri. Serpentirhabdias mamlambo n. sp. differs from other Serpentirhabdias spp. in the presence of M-shaped cuticular folds on dorsal and ventral sides of apical surface, the eye-shaped internal labial papillae, and the distinct dilatation of the oesophagus at its mid-length. Morphological differentiation of S. mamlambo n. sp. from its congeners is supported by molecular evidence based on cox1 mitochondrial gene, and ITS and partial 28S region of nuclear rDNA. Serpentirhabdias mamlambo n. sp. is the first species of the genus Serpentirhabdias described from the Afrotropical Realm.

Prevalence and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium serpentis in Captive Snakes in China.

Cryptosporidium species are the causative agent of cryptosporidiosis and common intracellular parasites that can infect a wide range of vertebrates, including snakes. In previous studies, Cryptosporidium species infections have been reported in snakes in Asia, Europe, and North America. However, limited information is available about the prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in captive snakes in China. Fecal specimens from 609 captive snakes were collected from Beijing (n = 227), Chengdu (n = 12), Dazhou (n = 359), and Ziyang (n = 11). The partial small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene was amplified by nested polymerase chain reaction to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed to assess evolutionary relationships and genetic characteristics. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 1.97% (12/609). BLAST and phylogenetic analysis of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene showed that the parasites belonged to Cryptosporidium serpentis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in snakes of southwestern and northern China and provides preliminary data for the control and prevention of cryptosporidiosis in the investigated areas.

Multispecies reservoir of Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Cestoda: Diphyllobothridae) in carnivore communities in north-eastern Poland.

BACKGROUND: Spirometra erinaceieuropaei is a diphylobothriid tapeworm with a complex life-cycle including definitive, intermediate and paratenic (transport) hosts. Multiple routes of parasite transmission often make it impossible to determine what type of host a specific infected animal is considered to be. Spargana larvae cause sparganosis, a severe food- and water-borne disease mainly found in Asia. In Poland, Spirometra sp. was reported in large carnivores in Bialowieza Primeval Forest for the first time in the 1940s and was recently confirmed as S. erinaceieuropaei in several mammals and snakes using molecular methods. METHODS: In total, 583 carcasses of 9 carnivore species were necropsied between 2013 and 2019 in north-eastern (NE) Poland. The larvae of S. erinaceieuropaei (spargana) were isolated from subcutaneous tissue, counted, and preserved for genetic analyses. We calculated the prevalence and intensity of infection. To assess spatial variation in S. erinaceieuropaei infection probability in NE Poland, we applied a generalized additive model (GAM) with binomial error distribution. To confirm the species affiliation of isolated larvae, we amplified a partial fragment of the 18S rRNA gene (240 bp in length). RESULTS: Spirometra larvae were found in the subcutaneous tissue of 172 animals of 7 species and confirmed genetically as S. erinaceieuropaei. The overall prevalence in all studied hosts was 29.5% with a mean infection intensity of 14.1 ± 33.8 larvae per individual. Native European badgers and invasive raccoon dogs were characterized by the highest prevalence. An analysis of parasite spread showed a spatially diversified probability of infection with the highest values occurring in the biodiversity hot spot, Bialowieza Primeval Forest. CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed that various mammal species (both native and non-native) can serve as S. erinaceieuropaei reservoirs. The frequency and level of infection may differ between selected hosts and likely depend on host diversity and habitat structure in a given area. Further studies are needed to assess the distribution of the parasite throughout Europe and the environmental and biological factors influencing infection severity in wild mammals.

A French case of porocephalosis diagnosed by radiologists.

Porocephalosis is the name given to human infection by Armillifer, which is rare, especially in European and North American populations. Among the few cases reported to date, most of them were described in the African community. Humans can become infected, for example, consuming undercooked meat from infected snakes. Herein we report the case of a 31-year-old male, originally from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, who was living in France for many years and presented with lower back pain and mild abdominal pain. Imaging showed multiple comma-shaped calcifications disseminated in the liver and the peritoneal cavity, without any additional feature. The patient reported regular consumption of snake meat during his travels in Africa, and thus the diagnosis of porocephalosis could be made. Doctors treating patients from endemic areas or traveling in endemic areas, particularly in Africa, should become familiar with this infection and consider it in the case of multiple calcifications on imaging. More cases of porocephalosis are likely to be seen in the future because of the increase in international travel.

Molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. in pet snakes in Beijing, China.

Few reports of Cryptosporidium spp. in snakes in China have been published. To determine the infection rate and document the presence of Cryptosporidium in pet snakes using molecular methods, 273 fecal samples were collected from eight species of pet snakes from 13 pet households in Beijing, China, and were examined by PCR amplification of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene. Cryptosporidium was detected from 17 of 273 (6.2%) samples, and nine out of 13 households tested positive for Cryptosporidium with a range of 3.3 to 33.3% among households showing significant difference (p < 0.01). The infection rate of Cryptosporidium for females and males was 6.5% (13/201) and 5.6% (4/72), respectively, showing no significant difference (p > 0.05). Six out of eight pet snake species tested positive for Cryptosporidium with a range of 4.2 to 9.1% among species, showing no significant difference (p > 0.05). Two Cryptosporidium species were identified: Cryptosporidium serpentis in 10 samples and Cryptosporidium varanii in seven samples. No zoonotic Cryptosporidium species occur in our study populations.

Protein phosphorylation networks in spargana of Spirometra erinaceieuropaei revealed by phosphoproteomic analysis.

BACKGROUND: Sparganosis caused by Spirometra erinaceieuropaei spargana is a zoonotic parasitic infection that has been reported in many countries, including China, Japan, Thailand and Korea, as well as European countries and the USA. The biological and clinical significance of the parasite have previously been reported. Although the genomic and transcriptomic analysis of S. erinaceieuropaei provided insightful views about the development and pathogenesis of this species, little knowledge has been acquired in terms of post-translational regulation that is essential for parasite growth, development and reproduction. Here, we performed site-specific phosphoproteomic profiling, with an aim to obtain primary information about the global phosphorylation status of spargana. RESULTS: A total of 3228 phosphopeptides and 3461 phosphorylation sites were identified in 1758 spargana proteins. The annotated phosphoproteins were involved in a variety of biological pathways, including cellular (28%), metabolic (20%) and single-organism (17%) processes. The functional enrichment of phosphopeptides by Gene Ontology analysis indicated that most spargana phosphoproteins were related to the cytoskeleton cellular compartment, signaling molecular function, and a variety of biological processes, including a molecular function regulator, guanyl-nucleotide exchange factor activity, protein kinase activities, and calcium ion binding. The highly enriched pathways of phosphorylation proteins include the phosphatidylinositol signaling system, phagosome, endocytosis, inositol phosphate metabolism, terpenoid backbone biosynthesis, and peroxisome. Domain analysis identified an EF-hand domain and pleckstrin homology domain among the key domains. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this study performed the first global phosphoproteomic analysis of S. erinaceieuropaei. The dataset reported herein provides a valuable resource for future studies on the signaling pathways of this important zoonotic parasite.

A checklist and key to the tick fauna (Acari: Ixodidae, Argasidae) of Pulau Tioman, Malaysia.

Pulau Tioman is a popular tourist island off the east coast of Peninsula Malaysia, known for its vast areas of intact vegetation. Six tick species have been recorded on the island but little is known about their local ecology or public health importance. To facilitate studies of the tick fauna of Pulau Tioman, a checklist of all species and host associations is presented with the first host records, from Pulau Tioman, of Amblyomma helvolum from the Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator) and Amblyomma varanense from the keeled rat snake (Ptyas carinata). A pictorial key is also presented for all tick species known from the island.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Spirometra erinaceieuropaei spargana in snakes in Hunan Province, China.

Sparganosis is an important foodborne parasitic zoonosis; however, few reports on the prevalence of snake-infecting plerocercoids from Hunan province in China are available. Therefore, we investigated the prevalence of spargana infection in wild snakes from this region in 2018, and identified an astonishing prevalence rate of 91.7% (344/375). Spargana parasites were found in 99.1% of Zaocys dhumnades, 94.1% of Elaphe carinata and 86.7% of Elaphe taeniura. Parasites exhibited various distributions: 50% were located in muscular tissue, 32.1% in subcutaneous tissue and 17.9% in the coelomic cavity. To identify the specific status of spargana collected from wild snakes, partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene sequences were amplified, sequenced and analysed. Sequence variations for cox1 among all the examined plerocercoids ranged between 0.0 and 2.9%, with 21 variable sites identified (4.71%, 21/446). Phylogenetic analyses identified that all plerocercoids isolated from Hunan province were Spirometra erinaceieuropaei. This is the first report of S. erinaceieuropaei infection in snakes in Hunan province. The risks and harms of sparganosis should be publicized, and illegal wildlife trade should be controlled.

Occurrence of Kalicephalus, Strongyloides, and Rhabdias nematodes as most common gastrointestinal parasites in captive snakes of German households and zoological gardens.

Nowadays, snakes established as domestic exotic pets, harboring numerous (zoonotic) gastrointestinal parasites. In this parasitological survey, we used direct saline fecal smears (DSFS) to examine 586 stool samples from 71 different snake species either kept as pets in households or in zoological gardens in Germany. In addition to DSFS, carbol-fuchsin-fecal smears (n = 296), coproantigen ELISA tests (n = 98), and immunofluorescence assays (IFA; n = 77) for the detection reptile Cryptosporidium infections were conducted. Complete dissections of deceased snakes (n = 63) were also performed in order to gain data on endoparasite species burdens affecting domestic snakes. Overall, examined fecal samples contained 20 different parasite taxa: Ancylostomatid Kalicephalus spp. were the most prevalent nematode species (3.3%), followed by Strongyloides/Rhabdias (2.6%), flagellated protozoan trophozoites (e. g., Proteromonadida, Reteromonadida) (2.3%), Monocercomonas spp. (1.9%), Entamoeba spp. (1.4%), unsporulated coccidian oocysts (1.4%), Kapsulotaenia spp. (0.9%), Capillaria spp. (0.7%), indet. trematodes (0.5%), pentastomids (0.5%), spirurids (0.4%), Eimeria spp. (0.4%), ascarids (0.4%), Blastocystis sp. (0.2%), heterakids (0.2%), cestodes (Proteocephalidae) (0.2%), Plagiorchis spp. (0.2%), Cryptosporidium spp. (0.2%), Caryospora epicratesi (0.2%), and Sarcocystis spp. (0.2%). For Cryptosporidium, four carbol-fuchsin-stained smears (1.4%), 12 (12.2%) coproantigen ELISA-examined samples and 5.2% of examined samples were diagnosed with IFA. Fourteen (22.2%) of dissected snakes showed infections with various pathogenic nematode genera and 8 of them (12.7%) died due to protozoan parasitic infections. High prevalences of intestinal protozoan parasites resulting in severe pathological findings observed in dissected snakes call for more detailed investigations on gastrointestinal parasites.

Severe infection caused by nymphs of Armillifer armillatus (Pentastomida, Porocephalidae) in a leopard, Panthera pardus, in the Kruger National Park, South Africa.

The necropsy of an adult male leopard, Panthera pardus, shot in the Kruger National Park, revealed the presence of large numbers of Armillifer armillatus nymphs in the intestine, liver, spleen, mesentery, peritoneal fold, mediastinum and lungs. The animal had been observed to be blind in the right eye and severely debilitated. The infection with A. armillatus clearly contributed to its emaciation and anaemia. Armillifer armillatus is a parasite of snakes, using mammals that form part of the snakes' prey as intermediate hosts. It is also one of the pentastomids with the highest zoonotic potential in Africa. It is unclear if the leopard's partial blindness and injuries of its extremities forced it to forego larger prey items for easier prey, such as snakes, and this in turn led to exposure to this unusual parasite, or if he had simply developed a preference for snakes. The incidental finding of A. armillatus in a large carnivore emphasises the importance of necropsies in expanding our knowledge on wildlife diseases.

Revision of Acanthotaenia von Linstow, 1903 (Cestoda: Proteocephalidae), parasites of monitors (Varanus spp.), based on morphological and molecular data.

A morphological and molecular phylogenetic study of proteocephalid tapeworms of the genus Acanthotaenia von Linstow, 1903, parasites of monitors (Varanidae), was carried out. The type species, A. shipleyi von Linstow, 1903, which was originally described based on an immature specimen from Sri Lanka, is redescribed based on new material from the type host, Varanus salvator, in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Vietnam, and its neotype is designated. In addition, Acanthotaenia susanae n. sp. is described from Varanus nebulosus in Vietnam. The new species differs from congeners by the large size of the scolex, width of the rostellum and the number of testes. New molecular data (sequences of lsrDNA and cox1) revealed Acanthotaenia paraphyletic with the inclusion of Australotaenia bunthangi de Chambrier & Scholz, 2012, a parasite of Enhydris enhydris (Ophidia: Homalopsidae) in Cambodia. Molecular data confirm a wide distribution of A. shipleyi (isolates from Malaysia and Vietnam were almost identical) and indicate a strict host specificity (oioxeny) of individual species of the genus. Type specimens of four species made it possible to supplement their morphological descriptions. A survey of all species of Acanthotaenia recognised as valid is presented and the following taxonomic changes are proposed: Acanthotaenia pythonis Wahid, 1968 described from the green python, Morelia viridis, in a zoo, is transferred to Kapsulotaenia as Kapsulotaenia pythonis (Wahid, 1968) n. comb., because it possesses intrauterine eggs grouped in capsules. Acanthotaenia gracilis (Beddard, 1913) from Varanus varius in Australia is considered to be species inquirenda because its original descriptions did not contain sufficient data for adequate circumscription and differentiation from congeners and type material was not available. Generic diagnosis of Acanthotaenia is amended and a key to its seven species is provided.

Multi-locus characterization and phylogenetic inference of Leishmania spp. in snakes from Northwest China.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniasis caused by protozoan parasite Leishmania is a neglected disease which is endemic in the northwest of China. Reptiles were considered to be the potential reservoir hosts for mammalian Leishmaniasis, and Leishmania had been detected in lizards from the epidemic area in the northwest of China. To date, few studies are focused on the natural infection of snakes with Leishmania. METHODS: In this study, 15 snakes captured from 10 endemic foci in the northwest of China were detected Leishmania spp. on the base of mitochondrial cytochrome b, heat shock protein 70 gene and ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 regions, and identified with phylogenetic and network analyses. RESULT: In total, Leishmania gene was found in 7 snakes. The phylogenetic inference trees and network analysis suggests that the species identification was confirmed as Leishmania donovani, L. turanica and L. (Sauroleishmania) sp. CONCLUSION: Our work is the first time to investigate the natural Leishmania spp. infection of snakes in the northwest of China. Mammalian Leishmania (L. donovani and L. turanica) was discovered in snakes and the reptilian Leishmania (Sauroleishmania sp.) was closely related to the clinical strains both prompt the importance of snakes in the disease cycle. To indicate the epidemiological involvement of snakes, a wide sample size in epidemic area and the pathogenic features of reptilian Leishmania promastigotes are recommended in the future research.